ENGLISH PLURAL

In the English language, nouns are inflected for grammatical number — that is, singular or plural. This article discusses the variety of ways in which English plurals are formed.

Note that phonetic transcriptions provided in this article are for General American.

Regular plurals

The plural morpheme in English is suffixed to the end of most nouns. The plural form is usually represented orthographically by adding -s to the singular form (see exceptions below). The phonetic form of the plural morpheme is [z] by default. When the preceding sound is a voiceless consonant, it is pronounced [s]. Examples:

Where a noun ends in a sibilant sound — one of [s], [ʃ], [ʧ], [z], [ʒ], and [ʤ] — the plural is formed by adding [ɪz] (also pronounced [əz]), which is spelled -es if the word does not already end with -e:

Morphophonetically, these rules are sufficient to describe most English plurals. However, there are several complications introduced in spelling.

The -oes rule: most nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant also form their plurals by adding -es (pronounced [z]):

The -ies rule: nouns ending in a y preceded by a consonant drop the y and add -ies (pronounced [iz]):

Note, however, that proper nouns (particularly those for people or places) ending in a y preceded by a consonant form their plurals regularly:

This does not apply to words that are merely capitalised common nouns:

A few common nouns ending in a y preceded by a consonant form their plurals regularly:

But words ending in a vowel followed by y form their plurals regularly:

Almost-regular plurals

Many nouns of Italian or Spanish origin are exceptions to the -oes rule:

Many nouns ending in a voiceless fricative mutate that sound to a voiced fricative before adding the plural ending. In the case of [f] changing to [v] the mutation is indicated in the orthography as well:

Some retain the voiceless consonant:

Some can do either:

Note 1: Dwarf is an interesting case: the common form of the plural was dwarfs — as, for example, in Walt Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs — until J. R. R. Tolkien popularised dwarves; he intended the changed spelling to differentiate the "dwarf" race in his novels from the cuter and simpler beings common in fairy tales, but it has since spread. Multiple dwarf stars, or non-mythological short human beings, however, are dwarfs.

Note 2: For staff in the sense of "a body of employees", the plural is always staffs; otherwise both staffs and staves are acceptable, except in compounds; such as flagstaffs. The stave of a barrel or cask is a back-formation from staves, which is its plural. (See the Plural to singular by back-formation section below.)

Irregular plurals

There are many other less regular ways of forming plurals. While they may seem quirky, they usually stem from older forms of English or from foreign borrowings.

Irregular Germanic plurals

The plural of a few Germanic nouns can also be formed from the singular by adding n or en, stemming from the obsolete weak declension:

The word box, referring to a computer, is semi-humorously pluralized boxen in the Leet dialect. Multiple Vax computers, likewise, are sometimes called Vaxen, but multiple Unix systems are usually Unices (see Irregular plurals of foreign origin below).

The plural is sometimes formed by simply changing the vowel sound of the singular, in a process called umlaut (these are sometimes called mutated plurals):

Mouse is sometimes pluralized mouses in discussions of the computer mouse; however, mice is just as common because of the physical similarity between the input device and the rodent, which is the origin of the term.

Some nouns have singular and plural alike, although they are sometimes seen as regular plurals.

aircraft

sheep

moose

deer

fish, cod, trout, etc.

head, when used to mean "animals in a herd"; fifty head of cattle.

cannon

Some, especially the names of animals, have regular plurals, but these contrast in meaning with the unmarked plurals. Generally, plurals refer to several species or kinds of animal, while the unmarked plural is used to describe multiple individual animals; one would say the order [classification] of fishes, but five fish in an aquarium.

Irregular plurals from Latin and Greek

Because English includes words from so many ancestral languages, as well as many loanwords from Latin, Classical Greek and modern languages, there are many other forms of plurals. Such nouns (particularly ones from Latin) often retain their original plurals, at least for some time after they are introduced. In some cases both forms are still vying for attention: for example, for a librarian, the plural of appendix is appendices (following the original language); for physicians, however, the plural of appendix is appendixes. Likewise, a radio engineer works with antennas and an entomologist deals with antennae. The "correct" form is the one that sounds better in context, or that people in the field use.

Correctly formed Latin plurals are the most acceptable, and indeed are often required, in academic and scientific contexts. In common usage, plurals with -s are sometimes preferred.

• Final a becomes ae (also æ) — or just adds s:

• Final ex or ix becomes ices (pronounced [ɪˌsiːz] or [əˌsiz]) — or just adds es:

Some people treat process as if it belonged to this class, pronouncing processes /ˈpɹɑsɪˌsiːz/ instead of standard /ˈpɹɑsɛsɪz/

• Final is becomes es (pronounced [ˌiːz]:

Note that axes the plural of axis is pronounced differently from axes (/ˈæksɪz/) the plural of axe.

• Final ies remains unchanged:

• Final on becomes a:

• Final um becomes a – or just adds s

• Final us becomes i (second declension) or era or ora (third declension) — or just adds es (especially in fourth declension, where it would otherwise be the same as the singular):

Note: See article on the plural of virus.

Related is the use amongst Petrolheads of the term "Loti" to refer to examples of Lotus Cars in the plural.

• Final as in one case of a noun of Greek origin changes to antes:

• Final ma in nouns of Greek origin add ta:

Though some take s more commonly:

• Final us in nouns of Greek origin "properly" add es. These words are also heard with the Latin -i instead, which is sometimes considered "over-correct", but this is so common as to be acceptable in most circumstances, even technical ones.

The Greek plural for words ending in -pus (gr. poûs) meaning "foot", such as octopus and platypus, is -podes, but this plural is rare for octopus and has never been accepted for platypus.

Irregular plurals from other languages

• Some nouns of French origin add x

Foreign terms may use native plural forms, especially when the words are unfamiliar to an anglophone audience, or when writing for an audience familiar with the language. In either case, the unfamiliar conventionally-formed English plural may sound awkward, or be confusing.

• Examples of nouns from Slavic languages.

• Nouns of Hebrew language origin add im or ot (generally m/f) — or just s
  Note that ot is pronounced os in the Ashkenazi dialect.

• Some nouns of Japanese origin have no plural and do not change:

However, other nouns such as kimonos, futons and tsunamis are more often seen with a regular English plural.

• In New Zealand English, nouns of Māori origin can either take an s or have no separate plural form. Words more connected to Māori culture and used in that context tend to retain the same form, while names of flora and fauna may or may not take an s, depending on context. Omission is regarded by many as more correct.

Note: kiwi, when referring to the bird, may or may not take an s, but when used as an informal term for a New Zealander, always takes an s. Māori, when referring to a person of that ethnicity, does not usually take an s. Many speakers avoid the use of Māori as a noun, and instead use it only as an adjective.

• In Canada and Alaska, some words borrowed from Inuktitut retain traditional plurals (see also #Plurals of names of peoples, below):

• Nouns from languages that have donated few words to English, and that are spoken by relatively few English-speakers, generally form plurals as if they were native English words:

Words better known in the plural

Some words of foreign origin are much better known in the plural; usage of the proper singular may be considered pedantic or actually incorrect by some speakers. In common usage, the proper plural is considered the singular form. Back-formation has usually resulted in a regularized plural.

Note: A single piece of data is often referred to as a data point. A military phalanx is pluralized phalanxes. The phalanges as body parts (fingers and toes) are rarely referred to in the singular.

A related phenomenon is the confusion of a foreign plural for its singular form:

Magazine is a plural noun, from Arabic via French, but is always regarded as singular in English; the plural is magazines.

Plurals of numbers

English, like some other languages, treats large numerals like nouns, such as in "ten soldiers" and "a hundred soldiers." This is why dozens is preferred to tens while hundreds and thousands are all right.

Plurals of numerals differ according to how they are used. Such words include dozen, score, hundred, thousand, million, and so forth. The following examples apply to all of these.

• When modified by a number, the plural is not inflected, that is, has no s added. Hence one hundred, two hundred, etc. For vaguer large numbers, one could say several hundred, but many hundreds.

• When used alone, or followed by a prepositional phrase, the plural is inflected: dozens of complaints, scores of people. However, either complaints by the dozen or complaints by the dozens is acceptable (although differing in meaning).
• The preposition of is used when speaking of non-specific items identified by pronouns: two hundred of these, three dozen of those. The of is not used for a number of specific items: three hundred oriental rugs. However, if the pronoun is included with the specific item, the of is used: five million of those dollar bills.

Plurals and units of measure

Words that are being used as a unit of measure are kept in the singular when the measure it is a part of is used as an adjective. Thus for example a "twenty-dollar bill" is a bill worth "twenty dollars", a "fifteen-car wreck" is a wreck involving "fifteen cars", and a "ten-foot pole" is a pole that is "ten feet" in length except when used idiomatically.

Defective nouns

Some nouns have no singular form. Such a noun is called a plurale tantum:

annals, billiards^*, measles, nuptials, thanks, tidings, victuals, vittles

^* This refers to the table game, not the number 10¹⁵ in the long scale system of numeric names, which can be singular billiard.

However, some of them do have singular adjective forms, such as in billiard ball. In addition, some of them are treated as singular in construction, such as in "billiards is a game played on a table with multiple balls and a cue stick."

Neither do some names of things having two parts:

pants, scissors, trousers, tweezers

Note, however, that these words are interchangeable with a pair of scissors, a pair of trousers, and so forth. Nor are scissor, trouser, tweezer, or pant the names of the individual parts. However, the fashion industry frequently calls a single pair of pants a pant; this is a back-formation. (See the Plural to singular by back-formation section below.) In addition, one half of a pair of scissors separated from the other half is, perhaps illogically, referred to as a half-scissor.

Mass nouns (or uncountable nouns) do not represent distinct objects, so the singular and plural semantics do not apply in the same way. Some examples:

• Abstract nouns

goodness, idleness, wisdom, deceit, honesty, freshness

• Arts and sciences (even those ending in ics are treated as singular)

chemistry, geometry, surgery, biometrics, mechanics, optics, blues (in music)

• Other mass nouns, such as chemical elements and substances:

antimony, gold, oxygen, equipment, furniture, species, distress, sand, water, air, information

Some mass nouns can be pluralized, but the meaning thereof may change slightly. For example, when I have two pieces of sand, I do not have two sands; I have sand. There is more sand in your pile, not more sands. But there could be many "sands of Africa" — either many distinct stretches of sand, or distinct types of sand of interest to geologists or builders, or simply the allusive sands of Africa.

It is rare to pluralize furniture in this way. Nor would information be so treated, except in the case of criminal informations, which are prosecutor's briefs similar to indictments.

There is only one class of atoms called oxygen, but there are several isotopes of oxygen, which might be referred to as different oxygens. In casual speech, oxygen might be used as shorthand for "oxygen atoms", but in this case it is not a mass noun, so it is entirely sensible to refer to multiple oxygens in the same molecule.

One would interpret "Bob's wisdoms" as various pieces of Bob's wisdom (that is, pieces of advice), deceits as a series of instances of deceitful behavior, and the different idlenesses of the worker as plural distinct manifestations of the mass concept of idleness (or as different types of idleness, "bone lazy" versus "no work to do").

• Specie and species make a fascinating case. Both words come from a Latin word meaning "kind", but they do not form a singular-plural pair; they are separate nouns. Coins, such as nickels, euro/euros (see Linguistic issues concerning the euro), and cents are specie, but there is no plural. The idea is "payment in kind". And species, the "kinds of living things", is the same in singular and plural.
• Some names of elements, such as nickel, have plurals in non-chemical uses, as "five nickels to the quarter".

Plurals of compound nouns

The majority of English compound nouns have one basic term, or head, with which they end, and are pluralized in typical fashion:

A compound that has one head, with which it begins, usually pluralizes its head:

but:

It is common in informal speech to instead pluralize the last word in the manner typical of most English nouns, but in edited prose, the forms given above are preferred.

If a compound can be thought to have two heads, both of them tend to be pluralized when the first head has an irregular plural form:

Two-headed compounds in which the first head has a standard plural form, however, tend to pluralize only the final head:

For compounds of three or more words that have a head (or a term functioning as a head) with an irregular plural form, only that term is pluralized:

For many other compounds of three or more words with a head at the front, it is generally regarded as acceptable to pluralize either the first major term or the last (if open when singular, such compounds tend to take hyphens when plural in the latter case):

In a few such cases, both terms may be pluralized—again, with an alternative (which may be more prevalent, e.g., heads of state):

With extended compounds constructed around o', only the last term is pluralized (or left unchanged if it is already plural):

Compounds from the French

Many English compounds have been borrowed directly from the French, and these generally follow a somewhat different set of rules. French-loaned compounds with a head at the beginning tend to pluralize both words, according to French practice:

For compounds adopted directly from the French where the head comes at the end, it is generally regarded as acceptable either to pluralize both words or only the last:

French-loaned compounds longer than two words tend to follow the rules of the original language, which usually involves pluralizing only the head at the beginning:

but:

A distinctive case is the compound film noir. For this French-loaned artistic term, English-language texts variously use as the plural films noirs, films noir, and, most prevalently, film noirs. The 11th edition of the standard Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (2006) lists film noirs as the preferred style. Three primary bases may be identified for this:

1. Unlike other compounds borrowed directly from the French, film noir is used to refer primarily to English-language cultural artifacts; a typically English-style plural is thus unusually appropriate.
2. Again, unlike other foreign-loaned compounds, film noir refers specifically to the products of popular culture; consequently, popular usage holds more orthographical authority than is usual.
3. English has adopted noir as a stand-alone noun in artistic contexts, leading it to serve as the lone head in a variety of compounds (e.g., psycho-noir, sci-fi noir).

See also the Plurals of headless nouns section below.

Plurals (and singulars) of headless nouns

Linguist Steven Pinker, in his book The Language Instinct, discusses what he calls "headless words," typically bahuvrihi compounds, like lowlife and Red Sox, in which life and sox are not heads semantically; that is, a lowlife is not a type of life, nor are Red Sox a group of similarly colored socks. When the common form of such a word is singular, it is treated as if it has a regular plural, even if the final constituent of the word is usually pluralized in a nonregular fashion. Thus, more than one lowlife are lowlifes, not "lowlives." A related process can be observed with the compound maple leaf, pluralized in its common-noun form as maple leaves; when it is adopted as the name of an ice-hockey team, it turns headless and its plural becomes Maple Leafs. Other examples include sabertooth/sabertooths, flatfoot/flatfoots, tenderfoot/tenderfoots, and still life/still lifes. An exception is Blackfoot, of which the plural can be Blackfeet, though that form of the name is officially rejected by the Blackfoot First Nations of Canada. In other cases, the common form of a headless word is a nonregular plural or a singular term treated as plural; when such a word lacks a terminal s, it is treated as defective, thus making the singular version of the word identical: a single member of the Boston baseball team is a Red Sox, just as all twenty-five are; any one of the twelve current members of the Miami Heat is a Heat.

Nouns with multiple plurals

Some nouns have two plurals, one used to refer to a number of things considered individually, the other to refer to a number of things collectively. In some cases, one of the two is nowadays archaic or dialectal.

Note 1: Childer has all but disappeared, but can still be seen in Childermas (Innocents' Day). Note 2: Kine is still used in rural English dialects. Note 3: Dies is used as the plural for die in the sense of a mould; dice as the plural (and increasingly as the singular) in the sense of a small random number generator. "Dice" is also the accepted plural form of die in the semiconductor industry. Note 4: Fish: the plural for one species of fish, or caught fish, is fish, but for live fish of many species, or in poetic usage, fishes is used. Note 5: If you have several (British) one-penny pieces you have several pennies. Pence is used for an amount of money, which can be made up of a number of coins of different denominations: one penny and one five-penny piece are together worth six pence. Penny and pennies also refer to one or more U.S. one-cent pieces. But in American usage, a nickel is worth five cents, not five pence, though a penny is worth one cent (not plural). Note 6: For multiple plants, iris is used, but irises is used for multiple blossoms. Note 7: Clothes refers collectively to all of the cloth covering a person's body.

A final odd case is person. The word people is usually treated as the suppletive plural of person (one person, many people). However, in legal and other formal contexts, the plural of person is persons; furthermore, people can also be a singular noun with its own plural (for example, "We are many persons, from many peoples").

Plurals of symbols and abbreviations

Symbols and abbreviations whose plural would be ambiguous if only an s were added are pluralized by adding 's.

"mind your p's and q's"

Usage is divided on whether to extend this use of the apostrophe to non-ambiguous cases, such as the plurals of numbers (1990's) and words used as terms (his writing contains a lot of but's). Some writers use this form in a desire for consistency, whereas others say it confuses the plural with the possessive -'s.

Plurals of acronyms and initialisms

Acronyms and initialisms are generally used as if they are words. Clearly, one would tend not to pluralize the laser initialism as laser's. Thus the most consistent approach for pluralizing acronyms is likely to simply add a lowercase s as a suffix. This works well even for acronyms ending with an S, as in CASs (pronounced 'kazzes'), while still making it possible to use the possessive form ('s) for acronyms without confusion.

The traditional style of pluralizing single letters with 's (as explained above for symbols and abbreviations) was naturally extended to acronyms when they were commonly written with periods. This form is still preferred by some people for initialisms and thus the form using 's as a suffix is often seen in general usage.

Plural to singular by back-formation

Some words have started out with unusually formed singulars and plurals, but more "normal" singular-plural pairs have resulted by back-formation. For an example from the vegetable world, pease was the singular and peasen the plural, but over the centuries, first pease became the plural and pea the singular, and finally the plural was altered to peas. Similarly, termites and primates were the three-syllable plurals of termes and primas, respectively, but these singulars were lost, the plurals given two syllables, and now we have termite and termites and primate and primates. Syringe is a back-formation from syringes, itself the plural of syrinx, a musical instrument. Cherry is from Norman French cherise. Finally, phases was once the plural of phasis, but the singular is now phase.

Kudos is a singular Greek word meaning praise, but the same process may be happening to it. At present, kudo is an error, however. The name of the Greek sandwich style gyros is, increasingly, undergoing the same transformation. Gyros is from the Greek for "turning," but it looks like an English plural, and it is not uncommon to hear or see a reference to "a gyro".

The singular form of Spanish tamales (IPA: [ta ˈmal es]) is tamal ([ta ˈmal]). The anglicized version of tamales is pronounced [tə ˈmɑl iz] and the back-formed singular is tamale [(tə ˈmɑl i)].

Plurals of names of peoples

There are several different rules for this.

In discussing peoples whose demonym takes -man or -woman, there are three options: pluralize to -men or -women if referring to individuals, and use the root alone if referring to the whole nation, or add people.

One can say "a Scots(wo)man" or "a Scot", "Scots(wo)men", "Scottish people", or "Scots," and "the Scottish" or "the Scots". (Scotch is considered old fashioned.)

Several peoples have names that are simple nouns and can be pluralized:

Names of peoples that end in -ese take no plural:

Neither do Swiss or Québécois.

Most names for Native Americans are not pluralized:

Ojibwa

Iroquois

Blood

Mi'kmaq

Some exceptions include Crees, Mohawks, Hurons, Algonquins, Chippewas, Oneidas, Aztecs. Note also the following words borrowed from Inuktitut:

Names of most other peoples of the world are pluralized using the normal English rules.

Discretionary plurals

A number of words like army, fleet, Government, company, party, pack, crowd, mess, number, and majority, may refer either to a single entity or the members of the set that compose it. Thus, in British English they are "treated as singular or plural at discretion," as H.W. Fowler put it, who noted that occasionally a "delicate distinction" is made possible by discretionary plurals: "The Cabinet is divided is better, because in the order of thought a whole must precede division; and The Cabinet are agreed is better, because it takes two or more to agree" (A Dictionary of Modern English Usage, 2nd ed., revised by Sir Ernest Gowers [New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965], p. 403). Also in British English, names of towns and countries take plural verbs when they refer to sports teams but singular verbs when they refer to the actual place: England are playing Germany tonight refers to a football game, but England is the most populous country of the United Kingdom refers to the country. In North American English, such words are invariably treated as singular.

Snob plurals

Another type of irregular plural occurs in the register of the English upper classes in the context of field sports, where the singular form is used in place of the plural, as in "a herd of antelope", "two lion" or "five pheasant". Eric Partridge in Usage & Abusage refers to these as "Snob Plurals" and conjectures that they may have developed by analogy with the common English irregular plural animal words "deer", "sheep" and "trout".

The term snob plurals can be applied more generally to uses of forms of pluralization characterized, first, by their departure from the standard English rule of adding -(e)s, and, second, by the likelihood they are being so used to enhance the status of the speaker. While speaking to a group of monolingual anglophone friends, someone talking about a recent trip to Russia who says, "We visited five oblasti," is most likely using a snob plural. The use of latinate plurals for nouns of Greek origin mentioned earlier in this article often are used as snob plurals cacti or hippopotami — although for many speakers this is simply the unmarked usage. The use of non-standard plurals can be one convenient way to communicate the claim that the speaker has greater knowledge, and therefore sophistication, than the interlocutor possesses. Because the pragmatics of this usage are heavily dependent on context, it's impossible to say that a particular use of pluarization is, or is not, a snob plural in the absence of information about the context of use. Someone speaking at a conference to colleagues who are Slavicists might use oblasti without the expectation of enhanced social status and, therefore, not using a snob plural. Articles in encyclopedias are, on the whole, written for the general reader and avoid forms of plural that would likely confuse those not already familiar with the topic.

External link

• Rules for Irregular Plural Formation of Nouns, Pat Byrd, Department of Applied Linguistics & ESL, Georgia State University